Olson’s collection of short stories Essay Example for Free

Olsons collection of short stories EssayOne important aspect of the eyepatch is the father and her ironing of the dress. The narrator is a middle aged mother of five Olson makes her out to be the type of woman that was rare for that time in American History a mother who works and cares for her children at the same time. This is a matter of necessity since the father remaining when she was one.This is a circumstance which reflect Olsons real life as well as a young mother in the early 1960s when opportunities were starting to open up for women but were as they are today. In that spirit, the book serves as a portrayal as an example of the unfairness of womens lives. In the book, the narrator who is left unnamed, reflects on her distant relationship with her eldest daughter named Emily. The book is an expansion on the story more or less mother and daughter and their need to identify themselves scorn living in a broken home during the Great Depression and trying to make ends m eet.Gradu whollyy, the mother reveals that she was only nineteen herself when Emily, the daughter was born and ascribable to the fact that there was no welfare system in place at the time, she was forced to leave Emily with the family of the father who left her. The narrator recalls how different Emily was from her siblings she did non smile or laugh easily. The narrator has loved her as much as the others but was unable to learn how to show this most important charitable affection. The narrator ties into this circumstance, the fact that Emily is very different from her siblings and does not laugh or show emotion easily.To make matter worse, Emily develops a severe case of the rubeola and she is quarantined from her mother and siblings again. The measles becomes too severe that Emily is sent to a convalescent home in the country. By the time she is allowed to come home, she is a draft of herself, both physically and emotionally as it is now impossible to give or receive any amo unt of physical affection. Later in Emilys development, she is still finding her past as a major impediment to her personal growth. Emily has no concern for the future and for her schooling and exams as well.Despite all of the attempts by Emilys family, no effort proves fruitful and the narrator informs the reader that the family has come to the consensus that they will let her be and will leave her alone. There is an explicit boundary between the identities of the mother and daughter despite the fact that they both have very similar pasts. But the asking for help is what the narrator finds awkward when it comes to the assistance needed to help her daughter. You think that because I am her mother I have a key or that in some carriage you could use me as a key. She has lived for nineteen years.There is all that life that has happened outside of me, beyond me. The story and the narrator present the development of both mother and daughter as incomplete. The daughter is still trying to find herself and her level of independence and the mother is struggling with her guilt that she feels by abandoning her daughter and the consequences Emily has suffered because of it. A obscure sense of deprivation pervades I Stand Here Ironing. The mother describes numerous terminal pointations she has had to confront poverty, abandonment by her first husband, housework, and motherhood itself. The limited resources of the mother limit the daughter as well.The mother feels helpless to encourage her daughters budding talent as an actress. Both the daughter and mother appear to be apathetic about their circumstances and the future by the end of the story. The daughter decides to sleep late and miss her exams because she says that at atom bomb is going to hit and everybody is going to be dead anyways. It is a sad story and a story of two individuals, important to each other, never being able to connect as a family should because of their inability to rise above their circumstance s which served as an impediment too great for them to overcome.WORKS CITED Byrne, Marie. The Essence of Tillie Olson. Bloomington University of Indiana Press. 1999 I chose this book because I demonstrate the person of Tillie Olson, a person that I had never heard before, as a fascinating one. Her life and the decades of struggle for womens rights was one that needed to be addressed and studied. In the situation that she came up in and the impediments that she faced by not only her time in American History but as a single mother as well was a story that I needed to first picture, as well as a trinity party could before I was to write on any of her works.Olson, Tillie. I Stand Here Ironing. New York Dell Publishing, 1994 This book was chosen since it serves as the textual matter for the book. This was read also to obtain direct quotes from the book and to reread a number of passages that I, at first, did not understand its importance in relation to the race of the story. The book gives a brief summary of the biographical information of Tillie Olsen and the other accomplishments that she had other than her writing career. Revere, John. Charlestons Times Courier Tillie Olson January 3, 2007.I was strike to discover that the death of Tillie Olsen had only occurred last month. When this was discovered, I looked at some newspapers for the day in order to find any obituaries on this person. And to my surprise, an extensive recital was found and I was able to put a name to a face something that I have always found helpful when trying to understand a person. The article detailed the accomplishments of Tillie Olsen and what her peers and readers alike had to say about her in a contemporary context.

Relations Between French and English Canadians Essay Example for Free

Relations Between French and English Canadians EssayOver the years, French Canadians start shown their dissatisfaction of their give-and-take with respect to English Canadians, the Canadian regime and the ROC. Due to this, the relationship between English and French Canadians has been heavily strained. The tipple crisis of 1917 was a major event cause tensions between French and English Canadians. During this time very few French Candians volunteered to go to war as their loyalty sided with Quebec and the French rather than with the British and the ROC. With galore(postnominal) Canadian soldiers dead and wounded from overseas battle, Prime Minister Borden was forced to turning to conscription as a means of increasing the number of soldiers. Although Borden had promised against conscription, in 1917 he set out the Military Services Act. Although all French Candaian MPs were opposed to this act, as they believed the French owed nothing to Britain, the act was passed and cons cription was set.This enraged French Canadians and in Montreal violence and rioting took place. Although the war ended only a few months later, for years to come a wedge would be put between the French and English Canadians. Later on in 1968 the Parti Quebecois was formed by Rene Levesque, which would highlight the difference in views between French and English Candians. The main goal of the PQ was to make Quebec a soveirgn nation as well as protection of the French language in Canada. Under Rene Levesques provincial government bill 101 was passed. This would set the official language of Quebec as French, meaning Canadian made products would be written in French, and government processes as well as businesses had the right to be carried out in French.This goes to show the strong nationalistic pride of French Canadians as well as the difference in views between French and English Canadians. Also in the 1960s, a group called the Front de libration du Qubec (FLQ) was formed. The FLQ wa s a violence group of seperist French Canadian Quebeckers. The FLQ carried out several violent attacks on English Canadians including several bombings and hold ups. Bombs began appearing in English speaking districts in Quebec and several masses had already been killed. In 1970, members of the FLQ kidnapped James Cross and were demanding the release of imprisoned FLQ members.They were also arguing that in Quebec, although there was an English minority, the English held all the positions of power. French Canadians have arguably been mistreated in terms of being part of Canada. However, they have shown their dissatisfaction through rioting the conscription crisis, creating the PQ and forming the FLQ. This has all led up to a variety and difference between English and French Canada, which will always be present.

The key personal features needed Essay Example for Free

The key personal features needed EssayCASE STUDYLaurie and Joe ask to open up a hairdressing salon. They nonplus had precedent experience running and managing a shop and now they want to run their own product line line. Write a report discussing the key personal features needed, suitable geological formation options for Laurie and Joe and finance options they should take into account.Keypersonal featuresTo ensure success when establishing a concern, laurie and joe need fall in the three key personal qualities entrepreneurship, personal qualities (motivation, experience, expectation) and other influences (cultural background, gender). EntrepreneurshipAs an entrepreneur, the basic qualities required ar to beAssertive, Determined, Very organised and responsible, Willing to take risks, Good with people, A good leader, Motivated, Dedicated, Confident, Realistic, Healthy, ResilientLaurie and joe must have a desire to succeed and have drive and energy which relates to the per sonal qualities of a person. A person wanting to establish their own business needs to have motivation, experience and expectation.Personal QualititiesMotivationMotivation refers to your personal drive, determination and desire to achieve a goal or objective, in this case setting up a business. There ar several reasons for why people break up up their own business but it is usually due toHaving independence and creation your own bossChoosing the stead and fel starting time employeesGaining more control over own destiny and increasing personal wealthHaving something to leave to familyAccepting a challengeSecurityExperienceAn experienced person would haveKnowledge of the product and service being enteredSkills in management such as communication, ER, history and finance, marketing and operationsOrganizational and customer service skills.It would be best if Laurie and Joe satisfied these requirements in order to have the best chance at a successful business.ExpectationExpectation relates to the persons level of ambition and self confidence. Someone with high expectations will have a vision for the future(a) of the business. Some expectations that Laurie and Joe should have includeFinancial rewardsIndependenceSuccessRole as the bossSecurity of future employmentOpportunity to use skills other(a) influencesOther influences include cultural background and gender. For laurie and joe, cultural background would not be a big factor for the success of their business as they want to open a hairdressing business. With gender, Laurie and Joe would just have to consider if they will be open to both genders and if customers would allow the opposite gender cut their hair. adapted establishment optionsBefore setting up their own business, laurie and joe must choose one of three establishment options start outing from scratch, buying an vivacious business or buying a franchise. There are advantages and disadvantages for all three options so Laurie and Joe must pick the one most suitable for a hairdressing business. beginning from ScratchStarting a business from scratch usually only occurs whenA new product is being introduced on to the marketExisting businesses arent meeting customer needsThere is a large demand and the market is growing.If these circumstances dont exist, it would be more uncontrollable to start from scratch. However as Laurie wouldnt be providing a new product, only the last two circumstances would need to be considered. Although it can be difficult to start a business from scratch, there are some advantagesThe owner has the freedom to set up the business the way they wishIf funds are limited you can start on a small scaleThere is no goodwill to wear forThe owner can determine the exploitation of the businessThe owner can choose the locationHowever, as noted above, there are some disadvantages when starting from scratch such as metre is needed to develop a customer base, employ staff and develop lines of credit from suppliersP rofit levels could be low at start up and the business could have liquidity problemsThere is a high risk of failure and a measure of uncertaintyFinances could be hard to obtainAs Laurie and Joe want to establish a hairdressing business, it is recommended that they choose to start from scratch as it would be most suited for their needs. purchasing an vivacious businessAn existing business may be purchased instead of starting from scratch as it may already be a successful business and would have an set up customer base, employees, equipment and location. Although there are a few advantages, there are also disadvantages when it comes to buying an existing business.AdvantagesSales to existing customers will bring in automatic incomeThe inventory and supply networks are set upEquipment is available for immediate useEmployees could be a good source of advicePrevious business owner could provide training and adviceIf the business had been successful it could be easier to obtain financesD isadvantagesSome employees may resent any changes to the business operationThe existing business could have had a poor reputation within the communityThe value of the goodwill could make the business over legal injurydAssets could be old and overvaluedThe location cant be changed and the existing layout may be difficult to changeFor Laurie and Joe, buying an existing business would be the most suitable.Buying a franchiseA franchise is license by a parent company to an individual to operate the parent companys business on their behalf. The franchises make up a chain of businesses under the parent companies name. a franchisor is the large organization and a franchisee is the individual(s) that operates the business on behalf of the company.Finance OptionsLaurie and Joe have two options when it comes to how to finance the establishment of the business. The two options are owners equity and debt finance.Critical issues in business success and failureWhen Laurie and Joe first start their business, there are five critical issues to be aware of. They areHaving a business planIdentifying and sustaining private-enterprise(a) advantageUsing applied scienceAvoiding overextension of financeManaging cash flowWhile most small business fail in the first couple of years, careful attention to these critical issues will servicing the business to succeed.Having a business planA business plan is the blueprint for future growth and development within a business. It sets out the coveted goals and strategies to direct the business. A business plan is essential to long-term success and must be followed. It should also be modified when there are changes inTechnologyThe competitionThe economyThe customers needsWhen setting up a business plan, Laurie and Joe would need to consider the prime function of the business, the guardianship statement, plans and strategies and budgeting. Laurie and Joe should also include why they want to establish the business, the goals they wish to achie ve, the steps necessary to achieve their goals and the time frame in which the steps and goals should be achieved.Identifying and sustaining competitive advantageSustainable competitive advantage refers to the ability of a business to develop strategies that will ensure it has an edge over its competitors for a long intent of time. To have a sustainable competitive advantage Laurie and Joe would need to think about pricing (higher or lower than competitors, prestige pricing), feel, value (a good price for the quality of product/service) and the features of their product or service. Laurie and Joe would be best off charging the same price as competitors but provide a better quality service and hair products. Laurie and Joe could also think about using the differentiation strategy in which they would offer customers something that is not already offered by competitors.Use of technologyTechnology is having many effects on businesses and the advancements and changing technology are al lowing business to advertise and communicate to customers in more convenient ways. As Laurie and Joe are setting up a hairdressing business, technology wouldnt be a big factor. A hairdressing business wouldnt rely on internet applications such as e-commerce and most likely wouldnt even have a website. The only technologies a hairdressing business would require are EFTPOS machines so that customers dont have to pay cash which therefore widens the customer base.Avoiding overextension of financing and other resourcesOverextension of financing and other resources refers to when business owners go over the budget and spending money on resources which are usually financed by external sources such as banks. To avoid overextension of financing and other resources, Laurie and Joe need to pay close attention to gearing, equipment/furniture/stock and budget.Gearing refers to the proportion of debt and equity finance that a business uses to finance its activities. If a business is highly geare d then there is a high level of debt resulting in a greater risk. Therefore it would be best for Laurie and Joes business to have low gearing, so more equity than debt.

Salinity in Rice Production

Salinity in Rice ProductionRice (Oryza sativa) is the closely important crop in the world after wheat, with more than 90% currently grown in Asia. Rice is the iota that has shaped the cultures, diets and economies of billions of Asians. For them, strain is more than food strain is life. About 120,000 varieties are grown across the world in an extensive range of climatic lubricating oil and water check into. It is grown on an area of 149.151 million hectares (ha) progenying 550.193 million tons of paddy with a yield of 3689 kg ha-1 (Alam et al., 2001). In Asia, China is the major rice producing country followed by India, In through with(p)sia and Bangladesh. However, yield per hectare is highest 6.1 tons in Japan, followed by 5.1 tons ha-1 in China. Rice breeders take a shit utilise genetic variability to produce cultivars that have high yield potential and that resist disease and insect damage and that tolerate c ancient, drought, and even floods. But a get going from some sporadic work in Sri Lanka and India, little has been d angiotensin converting enzyme until recently to identify any breed/cultivars adaptable to adverse soil conditions such(prenominal) as brininess. Salinity is a major threat to crop productivity in the southern and south-western part of Bangladesh, where it is actual due to frequent flood by sea water of the Bay of Bengal and on the other hand institution of irrigation with table common saltinessy solution waters. In Bangladesh, there are approximately 2.85 million ha of coastal soils (Ponnamperuma, 1977) which occur in the southern parts of the Ganges tidal floodplain, in the young Meghna estuarine floodplain and in tidal areas of the Chittagong coastal plain and shoreward islands (Brammer, 1978). About one million ha of land of these coastal and offshore areas are touch by varying degrees of table salt. These coastal saline soils are distri scarceed unevenly in 64 thanas of 13 coastal districts covering 8 agroecolog ical zones (AEZ) of the country. The absolute majority of the saline land (0.65 million ha) exists in the districts of Satkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat, Barguna, Patuakhali, Pirojpur and Bhola on the western coast and a smaller portion (0.18 million ha) in the districts of Chittagong, Coxs Bazar, Noakhali, Lakshmipur, Feni and Chandpur. harmonise to the report of mark Resource Development demonstrate (SRDI) of Bangladesh, about 0.203 million ha of land is rattling slightly (2-4 dSm-1), 0.492 million ha is slightly (4-8 dSm-1), 0.461 million ha is middling (8-12 dSm-1) and 0.490 million ha is strongly (12 dSm-1) coarseness affected soils in southwestern part of the coastal area of Bangladesh. Large fluctuations in table salt levels over meter are also observed at almost all sites in these regions. The common trend is an increase in salinity with time, from November- December to March-April, until the onset of the monsoon rains. The electric conductivity (EC) of the soils and water are lowest in July-August and highest in March-April at all sites. Soil salinity, at any time, is maximum in the surface layers (0-15 cm), the salinity gradient being vertically downwards. The salinity in subsoil is commonly much lower than that in the top soil. The underground water within 1-2 meters beneath the soil surface at all locations is moderately to strongly saline in the dry season. The compositions of the soluble seasons in these saline soils can indicate contingent management strategies for crop work. Sodium has been found to be the dominant cation, and Cl- the dominant anion species. Next in importance are Mg2+ and SO42-. Hence the salts are of the atomic number 11-magnesium and chloride-sulphate types. A very important aspect of the soluble salt composition of the underground water is the large excess of magnesium relational to calcium. Thus proper measures to maintain noggin balance may be needed for good coiffe ontogeny even under low salinity conditions. There is a general lacking of suitable salt giving modern variety (MV) of rice to suited different AEZ in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. The scarcity of good quality irrigation water is a major problem in these areas. The surface water resources are insufficient and irrigated agriculture is largely dependent on ground water resource. The use of such water for irrigation without proper management may render the irrigated soils as salt affected and consequently crop production may be hindered.For centuries, farmers have salt- resistive cultivars on the saline soils of India, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam. But, because of lodging and susceptibility to disease and insect damage, yields are about l ton ha-1. Recognition of the potential of saline lands for rice production in the densely populated countries of south and southeast Asia prompted the inclusion of salt margin as a component of the programme of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). O f the adverse soil conditions, salinity received most attention, because of its widespread occurrence in current and potential rice lands. Salt gross profit studies are usually conducted in step-up chambers and greenhouse, with corrects raised in plastic trays or in small pots. The salt tolerance of any crop is usually show as decrease in yield associated with a given level of soil salinity as compared with yield under non-saline conditions. The primary salinity factors influencing put out harvesting are the kind and slow-wittedness of salt present in the soil solution. Salt concentration in soil is usually determined by measuring EC of a soil saturation extracts (ECe) obtained from the active root zone. Recently, simple, rapid and reliable instruments such as salinity sensors and four electrode probes, have been developed for measurement of electrical conductivity of soil water (ECsw).Rice is the most suited crop for saline soils because it can tolerate standing water, which is necessary for replacement of saline soils. Soils are considered saline if they contain soluble salts in quantities sufficient to interfere with the increase of most crop species. Thus, the criterion for distinguishing saline from non-saline soils is arbitrary (Marschner, 1995). According to the definition, a saline soil has an electrical conductivity (EC) greater than 4 milli mhos cm-1 or 4 micro Siemens cm-1 or deci Siemens m-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and pH of less than 15 and 8.5, respectively. The saline soils with an ESP 15 and pH 8.5 are termed as saline-alkaline or saline-sodic soils. However, many different units have been utilize for salinity level expression. These are molarity (M), milli molarity (mM) (based on molecular weight of the salt) milli mhos cm-1 (mmhos cm-1) micro Siemens cm-1 (S cm-1), deci Siemens m-1 (dS m-1) (based on electrical conductivity) and % salt (based on percent concentration of the salt). Among these, mM, dSm-1 and % s alt concentrations are most commonly used. Approximately 58.5 mgL-1 NaCl = 1mM solution of NaCl and 640 mgL-1 NaCl is equivalent to 1 mmhos cm-1 (= 1 dSm-1) EC (Shannon et al., 1998). Therefore, 1 dSm-1 salinity is equivalent to about 11 mM salt solution.The present population of Bangladesh is about 140 million and rice is the principal food item of its population. The noble offset of population and loss of arable land due to urbanization are main causes of concern for finding ways and means for augmenting food production particularly rice. The possibility of increasing food production by increasing land area is quite out of question in Bangladesh. The only executable alternative is to increase the cultivable land areas by bringing salt affected soils under cultivation with high yielding salt tolerant rice cultivars. The lack of an installive evaluation method for salt tolerance in the screening of genotypes is one of the reasons for the limited success in customary salt tolera nt training. Two yield parameters, tiller number per plant and spikelet number per panicle, have proved most sensitive to salinity and are highly importantly correlated to final seed yield in rice cultivar under salt accent mark (Zeng and Shannon, 2000).Salinity in soil or water is one of the major showes, can severely limit crop production (Shannon, 1998). The deleterious cases of salinity on plant growth are associated with (i) low osmotic potential of soil solution (water stress), (ii) nutritional imbalance, (iii) specific ion effect, or (iv) a combination of these factors (Ashraf, 1994a Marschner, 1995). All these cause adverse pleiotropic effects on plant growth and development at physiological and biochemical levels (Munns, 2002) and at molecular level (Mansour, 2000). It is often not possible to assess the relative contri preciselyion of these major constraints to growth inhibition at high substrate salinity, as many factors are involved. These include ion concentration, duration of exposure, plant species, cultivar and root stock (excluder and includer), stage of plant development, plant organ and milieual conditions. So, to cope with the above constraints, salt stressed plants mainly adopt three mechanisms for salt tolerance such as (i) osmotic adjustment, (ii) salt inclusion/ exclusion and (iii) ion discrimination (Volkmar et al., 1998).Plant growth was seriously affected due to salinity which bowdlerised turgor in expanding tissues and osmoregulation (Steponkus, 1984). Alam el al. (2001) stated that the critical EC level of salinity for seedling growth was about 5 dSm-1. They observed that dry matter, seedling height, root length and emergence of new roots of rice decreased significantly at an electrical conductivity value of 5-6 dSm-1 and during the early seedling stage, more higher(prenominal) salinity caused rolling and withering of leaves, browning of leaf tips and ultimately death of seedlings. They especulated that both osmotic imbalanc e and Cl- was responsible for suppress of the growth. These authors maintained that the blare growth was more suppressed than that of root and salt injury was more severe at high temperature (35oC) and low humidity (64%) due to increased transpiration and uptake of water and salt by rice plants. At the reproductive stage, salinity depressed grain yield much more than that at the vegetative growth stage (Alam et al., 2001). These authors maintained that at critical salinity levels straw yield was normal but produced little or no grain. The decrease in grain yield was found proportional to the salt concentration and the duration of the saline treatment. When the plants were continuously candid to saline media, salinity affected the panicle initiation, spikelet phaseation, fertilization of florets and germination of pollen grains hence caused an increase in number of sterile florets. The greatest injurious effect was on the panicle. Salinity severely reduced the panicle length, numb er of primary branches per panicle, number of spikelet per panicle, seed setting percentage and panicle weight and reduced the grain yield. The weight of megabyte grains was also reduced. Salt injury resulted in the production of small grains in grain length, width and thickness. Most rice cultivars were severely injured in settle soil cultures at EC of 8-10 dSm-1 at 25o C sensitive ones were hurt even at 2 dSm-1. At comparable ECs injury was less in sea water than in solutions of common salt, in neutral and alkaline soils than in acid soils, at 20oC than at 35oC and in 2-week old seedling than in 1-week old seedlings. Since rice plant is susceptible to salinity at transplanting and gains tolerance with age, they advised that aged seedlings (6 weeks old) be planted in saline fields.Salinity affected rice during pollination, decreased seed setting and grain yield (Maloo, 1993). Finck (1977) suggested that deficiency of K and Ca elements might play a significant role in plant growth depression in many saline soils. Girdhar (1988) observed that salinity delayed germination, but did not affect the final germination up to the EC of 8 dSm-1 by evaluating the performance of rice under saline water irrigation. In normal conditions, the Na+ concentration in the cytoplasm of plant cells was low in comparison to the K+ content, frequently 10-2 versus 10-1 and even in conditions of deadlyity, most of the cellular Na+ content was confined into the vacuole (Apse et al., 1999).Abdullah et al. (2001) performed an experiment on the effect of salinity stress (50 mM) on floral characteristics, yield components, and biochemical and physiological attributes of the sensitive rice variety IR-28. The results showed significant decrease in panicle weight, panicle length, primary branches per panicle, change and unfilled grain, total grains and grain weight per panicle, 1000-grain weight and total grain weight per hill. They further observed significant reduction in both chlorophy l a and chlorophyll b content in different parts of the rice leaves at saline condition. In another experiment, Abdullah et al. (2002) studied the effect of salinity on photosynthate translocation in panicle branches and developing spikelets, carbohydrate content of different vegetative parts and suggested that reduction in grain number and grain weight in salinized panicles was not merely due to reduction in pollen viability and higher hookup of Na+ and less K+ in different floral parts but also due to higher accumulation of photosynthates (sugar) in primary and secondary panicle branches, panicle main stalk and panicle stem coupled with reduced activity of starch synthetase in developing grains.Gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) is widely used for ameliorating saline/sodic soils due to its tendency of replacing its Ca2+ with exchangeable Na+ on the soil complex. In addition, gypsum application to saline/sodic soils improve yield of paddy and forage grasses in arid and semi arid regions due to the effects of Ca2+ on plant composition such as decrease in the concentration of Na and improve plant-tissue concentrations of P, K, Zn, Cu, Mg and KNa ratio (Rengel, 1992). The addition of supplemental Ca to the root environment was a means of enhancing plant tolerance to salt stress (Epstein, 1998). This might favour the increase of Na+ inside the cells, change enzyme activity resulting in cell metabolical alterations interruption in K+ uptake and partitioning in the cells, and throughout the plant that might even affect stomatal opening, thereby, impairing the ability of the plant to grow. This author assumed that the addition of Ca2+ to the root environment of salt stressed plants would maintain or enhance the selective absorption of K+ at high Na+ concentrations and forbid the deleterious effects of the excess of Na+. Another role attributed to supplemental Ca2+ addition was its help in osmotic adjustment and growth via the enhancement of matched organic solutes accumulati on (Girija et al., 2002). Under salt stress conditions there was a decrease in the Ca/Na ratio in the root environment which affected membrane properties, due to displacement of membrane-associated Ca2+ by Na+, leading to a disruption of membrane integrity and selectivity (Cramer et al., 1985 Kinraide, 1998).Aslam et al. (1993) observed significant reduction in shoot and root fresh weights by different types of salinity such as NaCl alone, NaCl + CaCl2, Na2CO3 alone and a salts mixture. On the plant growth, NaCl alone was found to be the most toxic, Na2CO3 alone was the least harmful, and NaCl + CaCl2 and the salts mixture were intermediate. They found similar results in both solution culture experiment and the experiments conducted in salinized soils. They considered the better root growth under high salinity condition as the capacity of the tolerant genotypes to combat the adverse effect of salinity. Aslam et al. (2001) investigated the effect of supplemental Ca on rice growth an d yield in solution and soil cultures, and in naturally salt affected field. In solution culture, Ca was applied at 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 and 160 g/mL with 80 mM NaCl and without NaCl and in soil culture 0, 50, 100 and 200 kg Ca ha-1 was applied to artificially alert salinity (EC 9 dSm-1). Three cultivars, differing in salt tolerance, were used, namely K8-282 (salt tolerant), BG 402-4 (moderately tolerant) and IR-28 (salt sensitive). Application of Ca at 20-40 g/mL improved tillering capacity, shoot and root length, shoot and root weights in solution culture in the presence of NaCl. Shoot Na+ and Cl- decreased, whereas K+ concentration and K+/Na+ ratio increased because of Ca supply to saline medium. Grain and straw yields, plant height and panicle length were significantly higher in saline compared to saline sodic soil. Application of 200 kg Ca ha-1 proved statistically superior to the control in respect of panicle length, numbers of tillers, grain and straw yields under both saline a nd saline sodic soil as well as in naturally salt-affected field. Seed setting was improved in all cultivars because of external Ca supply to saline and saline sodic soils. Aslam et al. (2003) stated that an increase in potassium and K+/Na+ ratio was an indication of salt tolerance due to the application of additional Ca in both salt tolerant and susceptible rice cultivars under saline environment. These authors maintained that salt affected soils showed an improvement in the paddy yield of both salt tolerant and salt sensitive rice cultivars due to Ca application as gypsum at the rate of 25% of gypsum requirement of soil.Franco et al. (1999) studied the effect of supplemental CaCl2 on growth and osmoregulation in NaCl stressed cowpea plant seedlings. They found that salinity inhibited the length of root and shoot of cowpea but the repressive effect could be ameliorated by the addition of Ca2+. The concentration of organic osmoregulators (proline, soluble carbohydrates, soluble amin o-nitrogen, and soluble proteins) increased in root tips of seedlings grown in salt-stressed condition with supplemental Ca. They indicated that Ca2+ could have a protective effect in root tips, which is of fundamental importance for the maintenance of root elongation in NaCl stressed cowpea seedlings.Considerable improvements in salinity tolerance have been made in crop species in recent times through conventional selection and breeding techniques (Shannon, 1998 Ashraf, 1994a 2002). Most of the selection procedures have been based on differences in agronomic characters, which represent the combined genetic and environmental effects on plant growth and include the integration of the physiological mechanisms conferring salinity tolerance. Typical agronomic selection parameters for salinity tolerance are yield, biomass, plant survivality, plant height, leaf area, leaf injury, relative growth rate and relative growth reduction.Many scientists have suggested that selection is more conve nient and practical if the plant species possesses distinctive indicators of salt tolerance at the whole plant, tissue or cellular level (Ashraf, 2002 Epstein and Rains, 1987 Jacoby, 1999 Munns, 2002). Physiological criteria are able to supply more objective information than agronomic parameters or opthalmic assessment while screening for component traits of complex characters (Yeo, 1994). There are no well-defined plant indicators for salinity tolerance that could practically be used by plant breeders for improvement of salinity tolerance in a number of important agricultural crops. This is partly due to the fact that the mechanism of salt tolerance is so complex that variation occurs not only amongst species but, in many cases, also among cultivars within a single species (Ashraf, 1994a 2002). During the course of plant growth, the form and functions of various organs undergo significant change and the ability of the plant to react to salinity stress depend on those genes that a re expressed at the stage of development during which the stress is imposed (Epstein and Rains, 1987). The mechanism of salinity tolerance becomes even more complicated when the response of a plant also varies with the concentration of saline medium and the environmental conditions in which the plant is grown.Osmotic adjustment in plants subjected to salt stress can occur by the accumulation of high concentration of either inorganic ions or low molecular weight organic solutes. Although both of these play a crucial role in higher plants grown under saline conditions, their relative contribution varies among species, among cultivars and even between different compartments within the same plant (Ashraf, 1994a). The compatible osmolytes generally found in higher plants are of low molecular weight sugars, organic acids, amino acids, proteins and quaternary ammonium compounds.According to Cram (1976), of the various organic osmotica, sugars contribute up to 50% of the total osmotic poten tial in glycophytes subject to saline conditions. The accumulation of soluble carbohydrates in plants has been widely reported as response to salinity or drought, despite a significant decrease in net CO2 assimilation rate (Popp and Smirnoff, 1995 Murakeozy et al., 2003). Ashraf and Tufail (1995) determined the total soluble sugars content in five sunflower accessions differing in salt tolerance. They found that the salt tolerant lines had generally greater soluble sugars than the salt sensitive ones. Ashraf and Harris (2004) suggested that considerable variations in the accumulation of soluble sugars in response to salt stress were evident at both inter-specific and/or intra-specific levels and even among lines of which all were salt tolerant.Several salt-induced proteins have been place in plant species and have been classified into two distinct groups such as (i) salt stress proteins, which accumulate only due to salt stress and (ii) stress associated proteins, which also accumu late in response to heat, cold, drought, water-logging and high and low mineral nutrients (Pareek et al., 1997 Ali et al., 1999 Mansour, 2000). Proteins that accumulate in plants grown under saline conditions may leave alone a storage form of nitrogen that is neutralized when stress is over and may play a role in osmotic adjustment (Singh et al., 1987). A higher content of soluble proteins has been observed in salt tolerant than in salt sensitive cultivars of barley, sunflower (Ashraf and Tufail, 1995) and rice (Lutts et al., 1996 Pareek et al., 1997). Pareek et al. (1997) also suggested that stress proteins could be used as important molecular markers for improvement of salt tolerance using genetic engineering techniques.Amino acids have been reported to have accumulate in higher plants under salinity stress (Ashraf, 1994b Mansour, 2000). The important amino acids are alanine, arginine, glycine, serine, leucine and valine, together with the imino acid proline and the non-protein amino acids- citrulline and ornithine (Mansour, 2000). Lutts et al. (1996) found that proline did not take part in osmotic adjustment in salt stressed rice and its accumulation seemed to be a symptom of injury rather than an indicator of salt tolerance. On the contrary, Garcia et al. (1997) reported that exogenously applied proline exacerbated the deleterious effects of salt on rice. The salt tolerant rice cultivars Nona Bokra and IR 4630 accumulated less proline in their leaves than the salt sensitive Kong Pao and IR 31785 (Lutts et al.,1996). These contrasting reports on the role of proline in salt tolerance and its use as selection criterion for salt tolerance in rice has been questioned.Regulation of ion transport is one of the important factors responsible for salt tolerance of plants. Membrane proteins play a significant role in selective distribution of ions within the plant or cell (Ashraf and Harris, 2004). According to Du-Pont (1992) the membrane proteins involved in cati on selectivity and redistribution of Na+ and K+. These proteins are (a) primary H+-ATPases which apply the H+ electrochemical gradient that drives ion transport, (b) Na+/H+ antiports in the plasma membrane for pumping excess Na+ out of the cell, (c) Na+/H+ antiports in the tonoplast for extruding Na+ into the vacuole and (d) cation channels with high selectivity for K+ over Na+. It is well established that Na+ moves passively through a general cation channel from the saline growth medium into the cytoplasm of plant cells (Marschner, 1995 Jacoby, 1999 Mansour et al., 2003) and the active transport of Na+ through Na+/H+ antiports in plant cells is also evident (Shi et al., 2003). Salt tolerance in plants is generally associated with low uptake and accumulation of Na+, which is mediated through the control of influx and/ or by active efflux from the cytoplasm to the vacuoles and also back to the growth medium (Jacoby, 1999). Energy-dependent transport of Na+ and Cl- into the apoplast and vacuole can occur along the H+ electrochemical potential gradients generated across the plasma membrane and tonoplast (Hasegawa et al., 2000). The tonoplast H+ pumps (H+-ATPase and H+-pyrophosphatase) also play a significant role in the transport of H+ into the vacuole and generation of proton (H+) which operates the Na+/H+ antiporters (Mansour et al., 2003 Blumwald, 2000).In the early(prenominal) few decades, plant breeders in Bangladesh have achieved little success in developing some salinity tolerant crops specially rice through conventional breeding techniques, with relatively little/no direct input from physiologists or biochemists. Mutation breeding, a modern technique for creating variability has also played a vital role for generating new priceless cultivars of rice. Incorporation of mutation programme for achieving a desired character(s) in a variety can thus reduce the time required to breed an improved variety with the conventional hybridization method. Several cult ivars derived from direct utilization of induced mutants have shown that traits such as ill-considered straw, earliness and resistance to certain diseases, can be introduced in otherwise well-adapted varieties without significantly altering their original attributes. Study on the response of rice to salinity stress may be helpful in breeding salt tolerant cultivars by identifying physico-chemical potential of salinity tolerance such as accumulation of toxic Na+ and Cl- in the older parts of the plant, higher photosynthetic efficiency of the leaves, escaping ability to uptake Na+ and Cl-. The direct use of mutation is a valuable approach especially when the improvement of one or two easily identifiable characters is desired in an otherwise well-developed variety. In order to develop practicable strategies for selecting salt tolerant rice mutants/lines/genotypes adaptable in coastal belt of Bangladesh notably during boro season, detailed information needs to be gathered on the change s in physiological and biochemical aspects due to salt stress are attributable against detrimental effects of salt stress.In addition to the development of salt tolerant cultivars, better understanding of nutritional disorders in the context of plant nutrient uptake and physiological as well as biochemical mechanisms of salt tolerance in rice plants may suggest some strategies for plant breeders and growers for developing salinity tolerant varieties and management practices for cultivation in saline areas. There have been few such studies available in the country or elsewhere on rice for tolerance mechanism created especially in mutant genotypes. This question programme has been, therefore, planned with the aim of finding out the bio-chemical causes and possible soil amelioration programme in cultivating the rice mutants in the coastal saline soils of Bangladesh.safekeeping the above ideas, in mind, the present work has therefore, been designed and planned with the following object ivesinvestigating the effect of salinity on some bio-chemical aspects and growth of different rice genotypes at different growth stages, finding out the mechanism of salinity tolerance of selected rice genotypes and suggest possible reclamation programme for better growth of rice under saline condition.

Research Methodology for Business Analysis

Re depend Methodology for Business AnalysisRESEARCH METHODOLOGYMETHODResearch dodgingThe purpose of this study is to use the literary productions as a cloth to answers our two enquiry questions. Because our questions ar pro anchor, and therefore hard to measure, an analytical research approach that promotes measurement and a quantitative model is not tolerate for our study. Since the term strategy is an intangible phenomenon, information regarding the subject can only be hoard uped through deep c all into questions. For such studies the qualitative research strategy is preferred (Gilljam, Esaiasson et al 2004).Our purpose is to take up the strategy applied in our case company by victimisation the literature we kick in compiled as a framework. Even though there might be some instances of normative conclusions for how a strategical heed controls system should be formed, there is no direct empirical research tied to that conclusion in our thesis. because our research appr oach neither derives from a normative research approach. Our study should instead be classified as a descriptive one. Our main purpose is to describe how a strategy can be defined and how it can be apply as a caution control instrument. The descriptive study is used to describe a certain phenomenon through previous theories and thereby testing the validity of these theories in practice. The descriptive study leads to a deductive research approach. The deductive approach is used when the research is smalld on previous theories. The theories used states what type of empirical information that should be gathered, how it should be interpreted and how the results can be related to the theories to describe the empirical material. This research approach consist the base of our thesis.Research PhilosophySince we wanted to identify the strategy of Lema, the best way to gather this information was to interrogate the staff of the management team. Through our interviews we were able to gather adequate empirical information to interpret and describe Lemas strategy based on our hypothetical framework. Due to our emphasis on interviews we derive our adaptation of veryity through an operators perspective. This perspective concludes that reality is a social construction (Gilljam, Esaiasson et al 2004) and it is interpreted differently by each individual. Therefore the truth consists of coherency among different individuals interpretations of reality. This perspective is consistent with our choice of conducting four interviews to validate the coherency between each individuals interpretations and thus we essay to build a reliable empirical data of reality.Inquiry approachBy studying and summarizing the works of Michael Porter and Chan Kim Mauborgnes Blue Ocean Strategy we have come up with a coherent theoretical work frame for examining how a strategy can be defined in an authentic business. Further to this, we have investigated how the strategy can be executed by using Kaplan Nortons theories about Strategic Mapping and The Balanced Scorecard as well using Simons strategy implementation theory Levels of Control.According to Robert K. Yin (2006), a case study is that which discusses a contemporary fact in its real context. A case study also abets the use of several theoretical frameworks to describe empirical information. In accordance with this guidance we realized that this was an appropriate method acting for achieving the purpose of our thesis. Therefore our research method is based on an in depth, single case study in which we examined both the strategy and strategy management control system. Further to this we also wanted to make clear how the different theories could be used as complements to one another and use them together to describe the strategy of a company.Selection of Case Study ObjectsIn mark to be able to apply the theories that we have chosen for strategy definition and strategy implementation, we thought that a company with a clear market position would be suitable for us. This because an evident market position often mean a distinct value proposition, which facilitates the process of defining a strategy (Porter, 1996, 1998). Since our theoretical framework revolves around many different theories, it was also important that the company was of an appropriate size so that we would to be able to assemble the empirical and theoretical material into one comprehensible context. When searching for interesting companies that could be appropriate for our thesis, we became more and more interested in Lema because they have a unique concept and position. While the vast majority of companies have suffered during the recent financial crisis, Lema has defied this general imitate of decline and prospered. In mid-2009 their growth rate was higher than it had been for almost half a decade, despite the prevailing crisis. The fact that Lema has defied the general condition of the market suggests that they are in s ome way distinguished from their competitors. This triggered our interest for a more detailed study of the strategy that has contributed to Lemas success.After some initial contacts with Lema and receiving their support we decided to build our case study around their company.Literature searchIn order to find a practical and valid theoretic framework for strategy definition and strategic management control systems, we started our literature search by looking at previous studies within the field of strategic management controls.This was done by searching the Swedish database Uppsatster.se and through Gothenburg Universitys own database GUNDA. We used key search words such as strategy, strategic management controls and strategy implementation to find relevant studies within the specified field. After covering a broad number of previous works we put up several commonly used articles and books. We later searched for these articles by entering their specific article names within the scie ntific databases EBSCO, Emerald and Google scholar. The books that we used in our thesis were found in the various Gothenburg University libraries by searching on either the authors name or the title of the book. We first briefly overviewed the articles and books that we had found in order to evaluate whether they were relevant to our research question or not. The sources that we found relevant were later used to create our theoretic framework. We were also given literature guidance from our supervisor Ingemar Claesson and from a business case challengers (BI-Marathon) readings recommendations. The coherency among the sources we found through the database searches and those sources we get from our supervisor and reading recommendations from the business competition gives credibility of relevancy to our sources. Since our thesis converge two interconnected discourses those of strategy literature and those of management control, we consider our literature overview of five models qui te broad. This approach enabled us to apply a combination of appropriate theories to be able to answer our research questions in a manner that we saw fit.Through the literature search and understanding of the previous studies we created a theoretical framework. This theoretic framework guided our collection of empirical data in the case study so that the theoretic framework could later describe and interpret the empirical information.Selection of RespondentsIn the process of selecting responsives we assumed that we needed to interview employees at leading positions within Lema in order to gain information from those with significant insight into the strategic processes. In order to gain a broad perspective of Lema business and activities we chose to interview the CEO, CFO, buying Manager and the Store Manager of the company. By interviewing these respondents we gained insight into the different areas relevant to our study.Our respondents wereBoris Lennerhov, CEO, Lema Ullared (3/5 16.00-18.00)Per Andreasson, CFO, Lema Ullared (3/5 10.00-12.00)Christian Henriksson, Store Manager, Lema Ullared (4/5 10.00-12.00)Carin Kjellgren, Purchasing Manager, Lema Ullared (5/5 10.0-12.00)InterviewsWe have designed our interview template based on the theories that we have compiled so that the interview would be thematic and thereby congruent with the purpose of our thesis (Gilljam, Esaiasson et al 2004). Our interview questions were designed in a semi-structured way, as an entirely structured interview often leaves too little room for respondents to answer liberately (Patel Davidsson, 1994) A semi-structured interview also enabled each respondent to focus on the questions he/she found more relevant. We used the same general design for all interview templates in order to get a broad perspective of the interview subjects and to cross-reference these answers with one another to ascertain the answers coherency.Before the interview we met with the respondents to briefly explic ate to them on the different areas that we would be discussing so that our respondents would be acquainted with the topics of the interview. However we did not send the exact interview template, since we did not want our respondents to give us automated answers. None of the respondents requested to be anonymous, which contributed to the credibility of our research (Gilljam, Esaiasson et al, 2004).Data processTo facilitate the data processing and ensure the reliability of data received from our interviews we printed out our interview templates and used them during the interviews. Answers were document by both computer and by hand to ensure reliable answers. Since the interviews were held in Swedish in order to make sure that our respondents felt comfortable and to be able to gather more information, we had to first translate the raw data into English. The interviews were recorded for validity tour during the data processing.After documenting all answers directly after each interview we put together all four answers and concluded the coherent answers of each performed interview into one final main answer. This process is consistent with our research philosophy of the operators perspective that reality is based on coherency among each individuals interpretations.Due to our interview structure, which is based on our theoretic framework, we could quite easily relate the answers to our theories. We later analyzed the empirical data with our theoretic framework to answer our two research questions.Method Critics Validity and reliabilityThe validity of research studies is the most difficult and most important problem in empirical social studies. (Gilljam, Esaiasson, 2004) The term validity can be defined in three different waysCongruency between the theoretic definition and the operating(a) indicatorsFree from systematic errorsThe research examines what we intend to researchThe first two definitions can be categorized as conceptual validity while the leash definiti on is categorized as result validity. (Gilljam, Esaiasson ,2004)These two categories are related to each other by the following formulaConceptual validity + reliableness = Result validity (Gilljam, Esaiasson et al, 2004)The greatest validity problem is that of conceptual validity. The problem of social science empirical research is that many theoretic terms are abstract and intangible and therefore makes it difficult to use proper operational indicators that measure the theoretic term. Therefore improper results and wrong conclusions are created by using inconsistent operational indicators to measure the theoretic term.Further for the proper result to be valid, the reliability of the study must be high. Reliability implies that the thesis is free from unsystematic and random errors. These kinds of errors might occur due to stress, carelessness or sloppy notes, misunderstood interview answers, negligence of certain information during data processing etc. However it is argued that con ceptual validity is more important than reliability. (Gilljam, Esaiasson et al, 2004) For example if the operational indicators used in a study does not measure the intend theoretic term the results are flawed, but if the conceptual validity is correct and the reliability is low the results are slightly skewed though the overall result is still accurately measured.Since the theoretic terms strategy and management control systems are very abstract and interpreted differently among researches and professionals. There are no unanimous operational indicators that properly define these two terms or any unanimous framework in which these two terms can be described. However in this thesis we have implied a theoretic framework that guided us how to describe strategy and through this framework we formed interview questions that could be seen as our operational indicators. Thereby we attempted to achieve as good conceptual validity as possible.To increase the reliability of our thesis, we tap ed all our interviews and performed the same interview with our four chosen respondents. We used structured interview templates printed on A4 paper that would provide a clear guide for notes and made it easier for us to refer answers to our literature framework. We transcribed the answers directly after the interviews to make sure that the answers were correctly documented. Still the reliability for this study might be imperfect because our air during the interview might have affected the respondents answers. However we tried to prevent this so-called interviewers effect (Denscombe, 2000) by reacting as neutral as possible to the respondents answers. Further, Lema has not worked with any kind of strategy controls therefore some respondents were unfamiliar with our subject. If the respondents had read through our content email and prepared a sharpness before our interviews, their answers might have been better.Since we only conducted four interviews with the management team of Lema our empirical finding might include a large amount of their inherent assessments. It would have been better to interview a larger number of respondents within the management team and even conduct the same interviews with external industry experts5 to gain validate the answers of our respondents from Lema.

Concepts of Computer Networking

Concepts of Computer Net drubingCHAPTER 1 NETWORKING CONCEPTSNETWORKING BASICSAt its most elementary level, a computing pull net income consists of two computers connected to to distributively hotshot opposite by a cable that exclusivelyows them to shargon info. All computer net incomeing, no matter how sophisticated stems from that wide system. While the idea of connecting two computers by a cable may non seem extraordinary, inretrospect it has proven to be a major achievement in communications.Computer profiting arose as an answer to the need to sh be information in a timely fashion. Personal computers ar powerful tools that apprise swear out and moderate handsome amounts of data quickly, but they do not allow exercisers to sh atomic number 18 that data efficiently. Before interlocks, users needed either to print out documents or duplicate document files to a disk for former(a)(a)s to edit or use them. If others made changes tothe document, there was no easy way to merge the changes. This was, and still is, known as working in a stand-al wholeness environment.TYPES OF NETWORKSComputer profits can be categorized in the following types.LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)A local anaesthetic ara network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in close proximity to each other much(prenominal) as in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the net . The most common type of local atomic number 18a network is an Ethernet LAN. The little(a)est home LAN can have exactly two computers a large LAN can accommodate many thousands of computers. Many LANs are divided into logical groups called subnets.METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)MAN stands for metropolitan area network .It is a network of devices within an area of one to ten kilometers or with in a city. It may be a single(a) network much(p renominal) as a cable television network or it may be a means of connecting a act of LANs into a larger network so that resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device.WIDE AREA NETWORK ( sick of(p))A WAN stand for wide area network .It is spread by means of out the world. A WAN that is wholly owned and employ by a single company is often referred to as an enterprise network. It can connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world. A WAN is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the Internet.INTRANETAnintranetis a privatecomputer networkthat usesInternet Protocoltechnologies to securely share any part of an organizations information or operational systems within that organization. The term is utilize in contrast tointernet, a network in the midst of organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes the term refers only to the organizations internalwebsite, but may be a more extensiv e part of the organizations information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component and focal level of internal communication and collaboration.EXTRANETAnextranetis a private network that usesInternet communications protocols,networkconnectivity. An extranet can be viewed as part of a companysintranetthat is ext blockadeed to users outside the company, usually via theInternet. It has to a interruption been draw as a state of mind in which the Internet is perceived as a way to do business with a selected striation of other companies (business-to-business, B2B), in isolation from all other Internet users. In contrast,business-to-consumer(B2C) models involve known servers of one or more companies, communicating with previously unknown consumer users.INTERNETWORKAn Internetwork is a collection of two or more LANs connected by WANs. Internworks are referred to interchangeably as data networks or simply networks. The most pop ular internetwork is the Internet which is open to public.COMPONENTS OF NETWORKA data communication system has two main components-HARDWARE COMPONENTSDevices and media are the corporal elements or hardware of the network Hradware is often the visible components of the network platform such as a laptop, a PC or swtich etc.used to connect the devices. Ocassionally some components might not be so visible.DEVICESDevices of the network can be of two types that are the end devices and the intermediary devices, we explain both the types-END USER DEVICESAn end use device refers to a piece of equipment that is either the ousce or the terminus of a marrow on a network. Network users usaully only see or touch an end device, which is most often a computer. Another can generic term for an end device that sends or receives messages is a host. E.g host and end devices are Printers, Computers, Scanners, Webcams etc.INTERMEDIARY DEVICESIntermediary devices connect the indivisual hosts to the net work or can connect multiple networks to form an internetwork. Intermediary devices are not all the same. Some work inside the LAN to perfom switching places and others help travel guidebook messages amid networks. Example of intermediary devices are Switches, Hubs and Routers etc.NETWORK MEDIACommunication across a network is carried on a medium. The medium provides the channel over which the message travels from source to destination. The three main types of media in use in a network areCOPPERA twisted pair cable usually used as a medium inside a LAN environment.FIBEROPTICSmake up of glass or plastic fibers in a vinyl coating usually used for long runs in a LAN and as a trunk.WIRELESSIt connects local users through air using electromagnetic waves.SOFTWARE COMPONENTSSoftware components can be divided in to two parts, run and processes.SERVICESA network service provide information in responce to a request. Services allow many of the common netowrk applications people use ever y(prenominal) day, like e-mail hosting services and web hosting services. For an instance we can take example of YAHOO enterprise, they provide mail services as well as web services, there are a number of companies offering these kind of services.PROCESSESProcesses provide the funtionality that directs and moves the messages through the network. Processes are less obvious to us ut are critical to the opeation of networks. For example viewing a webpage invokes one network process, clicking on a hyperlink causes a web browser to communicate with a web server, in the same way many network processes can take place at the same time.NETWORK TOPOLOGIESTopology of a network is the geometrical way of the relationship of all the links and linking devices to one another.PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIESThere are four basic physical topologies possible fight, star, bus, and ring.MESH TOPOLOGYIn a mesh topographic anatomy every device has a dedicated point to point tie-in to every other device .A fully con nected mesh network therefore has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices .STAR TOPOLOGYIn star topology each device has a dedicated point to point connection only to a central controller usually called a hub . The devices are not directly connected to each other .Unlike a mesh topology ,a star topology does not allow direct traffic in the midst of devices the controller acts as an replace if one device wants to send data to another it sends the data to the controller which then relays the data to the other connected device.BUS TOPOLOGYA bus topology on the other hand is multi point one long cable acts as a back bone to link all the devices in a network nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps a drop line is a connection running between the devices and the main cable a tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.RING TOPOLOGYIn a ring topology each device has a dedicated point to point connection only with the two devices on either side of it . A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it reaches to its destination protocols.LOGICAL TOPOLOGIESThe Logical topology defines how the systems communicate across the physical topologies. There are two main types of logical topologiesSHARED MEDIA TOPOLOGYIn a shared media topology, all the systems have the ability to gravel the physical layout whenever they need it. The main advantage in a shared media topology is that the systems have free access to the physical media. Of course, the main disadvantage to this topology is collisions. If two systems send information out on the outfit at the same time, the packets collide and killing both packets. Ethernet is an example of a shared media topology.TOKEN BASED TOPOLOGYThe token-based topology works by using a token to provide access to the physical media. In a token-based network, there is a token that travels a round the network. When a system needs to send out packets, it grabs the token off of the wire, attaches it to the packets that are sent, and sends it back out on the wire. As the token travels around the network, each system examines the token. When the packets arrive at the destination systems, those systems copy the information off of the wire and the token continues its journey until it gets back to the sender. When the sender receives the token back, it pulls the token off of the wire and sends out a new empty token to be used by the next machine.PROTOCOLSIn information technology, a protocol (from the Greek protocollon, which was a leaf of paper glued to a manuscript volume, describing its contents) is the special repair of rules that end points in a telecommunication connection use when they communicate. Protocols exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection. For example, there are protocols for the data interchange at the hardware device level and protocols for data interchange at the application program level. In the standard model known as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), there are one or more protocols at each seam in the telecommunication exchange that both ends of the exchange must recognize and observe. Protocols are often described in an industry or international standard.NETWORK PROTOCOLSFor devices to communicate over the network, they must follow incompatible protocols that perform the many tasks to be completed. The protocols define the followingThe format of the messageThe way intermediary dvices share information about the path to the destinationThe method acting to handle update messages between intermediary devicesThe process to initiate and terminate communications between hostsINTERACTION OF PROTOCOLSInteraction between protocols can be intelligibly understood by a simple example, the way that a web server and a web client interacts. HTTP defines the formatting and content of the requests and responses transfer bet ween the client and server. both(prenominal) the client and server implements HTTP as part of the application. The HTTP protocol relies on other protocols to govern how the message are transported between the client and server. transmission control protocol is the transport protocol that divides the HTTP messages in to smaller pieces to be sent to the destination client, it is also responsible for controlling the size and rate at which messages are exchanged between the client and the server. Another protocol called IP is responsible for taking the formatted segments from transmission control protocol, encapsulating them into packets, assigning the appropriate manoeuveres and selecting the best path to the destination host.TECHNOLOGY INDEPENDENT PROTOCOLSProtocols that execute the network data are not dependent on any specific technology to carry out the task. Protocols describe what must be make to communicate, not how the task is to be completed.This is the reason that enables different kind of devices such as telephones and computers to use the same network infrasturcture to communicate.PROTOCOLS AND REFRENCE MODELSNetworking professionals use two networking models to comminicate within the industry, they are protocol models and reference models. Both were created in the 1970s.A protocol model is a model that closely matches the structure of a particular protocol suite. The hierarhical set of related protocols in a suite typically represents all the functionality required to embrasure the human network with the data network. The TCP/IP model is a protocol model because it describes the functions that occur at each forge of protocols with in the protocol suite.A refrence model provides a common referecen for maintaining the consistency within alkl types ofn etwork protocols and services. The special function of a refercen model is to aid in clearer understanding of the functions and process involved. The OPEN SYSTEMS INERCONNECTION (OSI) the most wel l known reference model.OSI MODELIn 1978, the worldwide Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of specifications that described network architecture for connecting dissimilar devices. The original document applied to systems that were open to each other because they could all use the same protocols and standards to exchange information.APPLICATION LAYERThe topmost grade of the OSI reference model, is the application horizontal surface. This floor relates to the services that directly backup user applications, such as software for file transfers, database access, and e-mail. In other words, it serves as a window through which application processes can access network services. A message to be sent across the network enters the OSI reference model at this point and exits the OSI reference models application storey on the receiving computer.PRESENTATION LAYERThe entry layer, defines the format used to exchange data among networked computers. Think of it as the netw orks translator. When computers from dissimilar systems need to communicate, a certain amount of translation and byte reordering must be done. Within the move computer, the presentation layer translates data from the format sent down from the application layer into a commonly recognized, intermediary format. At the receiving computer, this layer translates the intermediary format into a format that can be useful to that computers application layer. The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols, translating the data, encrypting the data, changing or converting the character set, and expanding fine art commands. The presentation layer also manages data compression to reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted.SESSION LAYERThe session layer, allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close a connection called a session. (A session is a highly structured dialog between two workstations.) The session layer is responsible for managing th is dialog. It performs name-recognition and other functions, such as security, that are needed to allow two applications to communicate over the network. behave LAYERThe transport layer, provides an additional connection level to a lower place the session layer. The transport layer ensures that packets are delivered error free, in sequence, and without losses or duplications. At the sending computer, this layer repackages messages, dividing long messages into several packets and collecting small packets together in one package. This process ensures that packets are transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving computer, the transport layer opens the packets, reassembles the original messages, and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message was received. If a duplicate packet arrives, this layer will recognize the duplicate and discard it.NETWORK LAYERThe network layer, is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into phys ical addresses. This layer also determines the route from the source to the destination computer. It determines which path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It also manages traffic problems on the network, such as switching and routing of packets and controlling the congestion of data. entropy LINK LAYERThe data-link layer, sends data frames from the network layer to the physical layer. It controls the electrical impulses that enter and provide the network cable. On the receiving end, the data-link layer packages raw bits from the physical layer into data frames. The electrical representation of the data is known to this layer only.PHYSICAL LAYERThe can layer of the OSI reference model, is the physical layer. This layer transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream over a physical medium (such as the network cable). The physical layer is totally hardware-oriented and deals with all aspects of establishing and maintaining a physi cal link between communicating computers. The physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by each of the higher(prenominal) layers.TCP/IP MODELThe TCP/IP protocol does not exactly match the OSI reference model. Instead of seven layers, it uses only four. Commonly referred to as the Internet Protocol Suite, TCP/IP is broken into the following four layersNETWORK ACCESSNetwork access layer communicates directly with the network. It provides the interface between the network architecture (such as token ring, Ethernet) and the Internet layer.INTERNETThe Internet layer, corresponding to the network layer of the OSI reference model, uses several protocols for routing and delivering packets. Router are protocol dependent, they function at this layer of the model and are used to forward packets from one network or segment to another. Several protocols work within the Internet layer.TRANSPORTThe transport layer, corresponding to the transport layer of the OSI referenc e model, is responsible for establishing and maintaining end-to-end communication between two hosts. The transport layer provides acknowledgment of receipt, flow control, and sequencing of packets. It also handles retransmissions of packets. The transport layer can use either TCP or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) protocols depending on the requirements of the transmission.APPLICATIONCorresponding to the session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI reference model, the application layer connects applications to the network. It contains all the higher-level protocols.COMPARISON BETWEEN OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODELThe OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers is roughly similar. For example, in both models the layers up through and including the transport layer are there to provide an end-to-end, network-independent transport service to processes wishing to commun icate. These layers form the transport provider. Again in both models, the layers above transport are application-oriented users of the transport service.The differece between OSI and TCP/IP model is that the Application layer of TCP/IP model operates at the upper three layers of OSI model, they are application layer, presentation layer and session layer, also the Network layer of TCP/IP model works at the lower two layers of OSI model that are, data link layer and physical layer.TCP/IP PROTOCOLThe TCP/IP suite of protocols is the set of protocols used to communicate across the internet. It is also widely used on many organizational networks due to its flexibility and wide array of functionality provided. Microsoft who had originally developed their own set of protocols now is more widely using TCP/IP, at first for transport and now to support other services.SOME IMPORTANT TCP/IP PROTOCOLSINTERNET PROTOCOLv4 (IP)Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-switched protocol that performs addr essing and route selection. As a packet is transmitted, this protocol appends a header to the packet so that it can be routed through the network using projectile routing tables. IP is a connectionless protocol and sends packets without expecting the receiving host to acknowledge receipt. In addition, IP is responsible for packet assembly and disassembly as required by the physical and data-link layers of the OSI reference model. Each IP packet is made up of a source and a destination address, protocol identifier, checksum (a calculated value), and a TTL (which stands for time to live). The TTL tells each router on the network between the source and the destination how long the packet has to remain on the network. It works like a countdown counter or clock. As the packet passes through the router, the router deducts the larger of one unit (one second) or the time that the packet was queued for delivery. For example, if a packet has a TTL of 128, it can stay on the network for 128 s econds or 128 hops (each stop, or router, along the way), or any combination of the two. The purpose of the TTL is to prevent lost or damaged data packets (such as missing e-mail messages) from endlessly wandering the network. When the TTL counts down to zero, the packet is eliminated from the network.IPV4 HEADERThe key handle of the ipv4 are as follows- germ ADDRESS Senders ip address ending ADDRESS Receivers ip addressTIME TO LIVE (TTL) Numeber of hops a packet must traverse before getting discarded.TYPE OF SERVICE (TOS) It is for a sending host to specify a preference for how the datagram would be handled as it makes its way through an internet.PROTOCOL This field defines the protocol used in the data portion of the IP datagram.FLAG AND FRAGMENT A three-bit field follows and is used to control or identify fragmentsVERSION Protocol version.INTERNET HEADER space The second field (4 bits) is the Internet Header Length (IHL) telling the number of 32-bitwordsin the header.PACKET L ENGTH This 16-bit field defines the entire datagram size, including header and data, in bytes.ADDRESS gag rule PROTOCOL (ARP)Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host, the hardware address of the receiving machine must be known. The ARP determines hardware addresses (MAC addresses) that correspond to an IP address. If ARP does not contain the address in its own cache, it broadcasts a request for the address. All hosts on the network process the request and, if they contain a subprogram to that address, pass the address back to the requestor. The packet is then sent on its way, and the new information address is stored in the routers cache.HEADERSome important fields of ARPs header are as follows-HARDWARE TYPE This field specifies the Link Layer protocol typePROTOCOL TYPE This field specifies the upper layer protocol for which the ARP request is intendedHARDWARE LENGTH Length of a hardware addressPROTOCOL LENGTH Length (in octets) of alogical addressof the specified prot ocol feat Specifies the operation that the sender is performingSENDER HARDWARE ADDRESS Hardware (MAC) address of the sender.SENDER PROTOCOL ADDRESS Upper layer protocol address of the sender.TARGET PROTOCOL ADDRESS Hardware address of the intended receiver.TARGET HARDWARE ADDRESS Upper layer protocol address of the intended receiver.contagion CONTROL (TCP)The TCP is responsible for the reliable transmission of data from one node to another. It is a connection-based protocol and establishes a connection (also known as a session, virtual circuit, or link), between two machines before any data is transferred. To establish a reliable connection, TCP uses what is known as a three-party handshake. This establishes the port number and beginning sequence numbers from both sides of the transmission.HEADERFollowing are some important fields of TCP headerSOURCE PORT Identifies the sending port.DESTINATION PORT Identifies the receiving port.SEQUENCE NUMBER This is the initial sequence number.A CKNOWLEDGEMENT NUMBER A 32 bit acknowledgement number.DATA OFFSET Specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words.USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)A connectionless protocol, the UDP, is responsible for end-to-end transmission of data. Unlike TCP, however, UDP does not establish a connection. It attempts to send the data and to verify that the destination host actually receives the data. UDP is best used to send small amounts of data for which guaranteed delivery is not required. While UDP uses ports, they are different from TCP ports therefore, they can use the same numbers without interference.HEADERSome key headers of UDP are as followsSOURCE PORT This field identifies the sending port.DESITNATION PORT This field indentifies the receiving portLENGTH A 16-bit field that specifies the length in bytes of the entire datagramCHECKSUM The 16-bitchecksumfield is used for error-checking of the headeranddata.NETWORK ADDRESSINGThere are millions of computers in use on the web and billions o f messages traversing networks at any given time, so prper addresing is essential to make sure that the sent messages arrives intact at the proper destination. Addressing of data happens in three different layers of the OSI model. The PDU at each layer adds address information for use by the peer layer at the destination.CHAPTER 2 ROUTING FundamentalsROUTINGRouting is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network, electronic data networks such as the Internet, and transportation networks. Our main name will be routing in packet switched networks. In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed packets from their source toward their ultimate destination through intermediate nodes typically hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers with multiple network cards can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the routers memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths.TYPES OF ROUTINGSTATIC ROUTINGStatic routing is manually adding routes to the routing table, routes through a data network are described by fixed paths (statically). These routes are usually entered into the router by the system administrator. An entire network can be configured using static routes, but this type of configuration is not fault tolerant. When there is a change in the network or a failure occurs between two statically defined nodes, traffic will not be rerouted. This means that anything that wishes to take an affected path will either have to wait for the failure to be repaired or the static route to be updated by the administrator before restarting its journey. Most requests will time out (ultimately failing) before these repairs can be made. There are, however, times when static routes make sense and can even improve the performance of a network. Some of these include stub networks and default routes.DYNAMIC ROUTINGDynamic routing performs the same function as static routing provided it is more robust. Static routing allows routing tables in specific routers to be set up in a static manner so network routes for packets are set. If a router on the route goes down the destination may become unreachable. Dynamic routing allows routing tables in routers to change as the possible routes change. Dynamic routing uses routing protocols for routing information automatically over the internertwork.STATIC VS DYNAMIC ROUTINGBefore goin g further we need to examine the difference between static and dynamic routing.ROUTING PROTOCOLSBefore going in to the exposit of dynamic routing we must understand what are routing protocols. Routing protocols implement algorithms that tell routers the best paths through internetworks. Routing protocols provide the layer 3 network state update. In short, routing protocols route datagrams through a network. Routing is a layer 3 function, thus, routing and routed protocols are network-layer entities. Routing tables on the layer 3 router are populated by information from routing protocols. A routed protocol will enter an interface on a router, be placed in a memory buffer, then it will be forwarded out to an interface based on information in the routing tableTYPES OF DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLSDynamic routing protocols can be divided in to the following broad catagories.CLASSFUL AND CLASSLESS ROUTING PROTOCOLSCLASSFUL ROUTING PROTOCOLSClassful routing protocols do not send subnet mask information in routing updates. This was at the time when network address were allocated on the basis of classes i.e A, B or C. These routing prtocols did not include subnet mask in routing update because the the network mask was determined by first octet of the network address.Classfull routing protocols can still be used in todays networks but they cannot be used in all situations because they do not include the subnet mask. Classfull routing protocols cannot be used where the network is subnetted using more then one subnet mask, in other words we can say that classfull routing protocols do not support variable-lenght subnet mask (VLSM). In the following figure the classfull version of the network support similar subnet masks i.e all /24.CLASSLESS ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Essay --

In 1933 to 1945, Germany was under the rule of Adolf Hitler, the man who commanded the Nazi party. Their goal was to get rid of wholly of the undesirables, or slew seen as lower than true Germans in Europe. Most of these people were Jewish but political prisoners, Gypsies, homosexuals, and Jehovahs Witnesses were also targeted. These people were shipped to concentration face packs, camps where people were detained and confined, typically under harsh conditions. The first of these made, and the model for all others, was Dachau, located somewhat ten miles north of Munich, Germany. It is approximated that over 50,000 people met their deaths in the Dachau camp, which would be the core of people that would fit into a sold out Yankee Stadium. The Holocaust horrors extended beyond the largely targeted Jews, as evidenced by the treatment of the largely civilian population of prisoners at the Dachau concentration camp. The first prisoners to arrive at the camp came on March 22, 193 3 and were under command of SS ships officer Hilmar Wckerle, the man who established rules that instituted terror as a way of life for the prisoners at camp. Many of these prisoners consisted of social democrats and German Communists who had an easier time at the camp than later prisoners. Long term imprisonments often lead to death but many of the early prisoners were released after serving their sentence and were considered to be rehabilitated. But purge in this early stage of the camp and the party, laws were changing to fit the Nazis ways. Theodor Eicke took over control three months after the camp opened, due to Wckerle being aerated with the murder of a prisoner. Hitler overruled the charges and declared that concentration camps were out of the realm ... ...ite, lining the bridle-path are twelve information panels. The almost three kilometer path represents the path taken by most prisoners when they arrived in the camp. The camp also has an archive on site that is op en for visitors, containing papers and documents from the camp when it was open. Currently hold over 6,000 pictures, papers like maps and blueprints, 350 phonograms, and about 1,200 films, there are many different sources in the archive and attached library. These consist of eye witness statements, documents about the development of the camp and the International Prisons Committee, which was established after the liberation. The memorial was made so the people of today could look back and remember the extreme amount of people that had their lives turned upside down and lost by the Nazi Party and to teach people so the same tragedy does not repeat itself.